使用的统计样本的暗物质晕从一套宇宙学N体模拟的冷暗物质（CDM）模型，我们量化的影响模拟晕的质量吸积和合并的历史上两个常用的措施，其动力学状态，维里比η和质量偏移量Δ r的中心。量化这种关系是很重要的，因为晕的动态平衡的程度将影响的可靠性，我们可以测量的结构和运动学的晕人口的特征平衡属性。我们首先验证了一个光环的形成红移zform与其维里质量Mvir，我们表明，其最近的吸积质量的分数和它经历了最近的重大合并的可能性增加，增加Mvir和减少zform。然后，我们表明，η和Δ r增加增加Mvir和减少zform，这意味着大规模最近形成的晕更有可能是动态不放松比他们的质量较低，年龄较大的同行。我们的分析表明，η和Δ r是一个晕的动力学状态的良好指标，表现出较强的正相关性与最近的质量吸积和合并活动，但我们认为，Δ r提供了一个更强大的和更好的定义用于宇宙学N体模拟在z~0的动力学状态的措施。我们发现Δ r < 0.04足以在z=0处挑选出动态弛豫晕。最后，我们在以前的研究的背景下评估我们的结果，并考虑其观察意义。
英文摘要：
Using a statistical sample of dark matter haloes drawn from a suite of cosmological N-body simulations of the Cold Dark Matter (CDM) model, we quantify the impact of a simulated halo's mass accretion and merging history on two commonly used measures of its dynamical state, the virial ratio eta and the centre of mass offset Delta r. Quantifying this relationship is important because the degree to which a halo is dynamically equilibrated will influence the reliability with which we can measure characteristic equilibrium properties of the structure and kinematics of a population of haloes. We begin by verifying that a halo's formation redshift zform correlates with its virial mass Mvir and we show that the fraction of its recently accreted mass and the likelihood of it having experienced a recent major merger increases with increasing Mvir and decreasing zform. We then show that both eta and Delta r increase with increasing Mvir and decreasing zform, which implies that massive recently formed haloes are more likely to be dynamically unrelaxed than their less massive and older counterparts. Our analysis shows that both eta and Delta r are good indicators of a halo's dynamical state, showing strong positive correlations with recent mass accretion and merging activity, but we argue that Delta r provides a more robust and better defined measure of dynamical state for use in cosmological N-body simulations at z~0. We find that Delta r < 0.04 is sufficient to pick out dynamically relaxed haloes at z=0. Finally, we assess our results in the context of previous studies, and consider their observational implications.
Secondary halo bias, commonly known as 'assembly bias,' is the dependence of halo clustering on a halo property other than mass. This prediction of the Lambda-Cold Dark Matter cosmology is essential to modelling the galaxy distribution to high precision and interpreting clustering measurements. As the name suggests, different manifestations of secondary halo bias have been thought to originate from halo assembly histories. We show conclusively that this is incorrect for cluster-size haloes. We present an up-to-date summary of secondary halo biases of high-mass haloes due to various halo proper…
If the formation of central galaxies in dark matter haloes traces the assembly history of their host haloes, in haloes of fixed mass, central galaxy clustering may show dependence on properties indicating their formation history. Such a galaxy assembly bias effect has been investigated by Lin et al. 2016, with samples of central galaxies constructed in haloes of similar mass and with mean halo mass verified by galaxy lensing measurements, and no significant evidence of assembly bias is found from the analysis of the projected two-point correlation functions of early- and late-forming central g…
Using dark matter haloes identified in a large $N$-body simulation, we study halo assembly bias, with halo formation time, peak maximum circular velocity, concentration, and spin as the assembly variables. Instead of grouping haloes at fixed mass into different percentiles of each assembly variable, we present the joint dependence of halo bias on the {\it values} of halo mass and each assembly variable. In the plane of halo mass and one assembly variable, the joint dependence can be largely described as halo bias increasing outward from a global minimum. We find it unlikely to have a combinati…
Dark matter halo clustering depends not only on halo mass, but also on other properties such as concentration and shape. This phenomenon is known broadly as assembly bias. We explore the dependence of assembly bias on halo definition, parametrized by spherical overdensity parameter, $Δ$. We summarize the strength of concentration-, shape-, and spin-dependent halo clustering as a function of halo mass and halo definition. Concentration-dependent clustering depends strongly on mass at all $Δ$. For conventional halo definitions ($Δ\sim 200\mathrm{m}-600\mathrm{m}$), concentration-dependent cluste…
We perform dark-matter-only simulations of 28 relaxed massive cluster-sized haloes for Cold Dark Matter (CDM) and Self-Interacting Dark Matter (SIDM) models, to study structural differences between the models at large radii, where the impact of baryonic physics is expected to be very limited. We find that the distributions for the radial profiles of the density, ellipsoidal axis ratios, and velocity anisotropies ($β$) of the haloes differ considerably between the models (at the $\sim1σ$ level), even at $\gtrsim10\%$ of the virial radius, if the self-scattering cross section is $σ/m_χ=1$ cm$^2$…
The clustering of dark matter haloes with fixed mass depends on their formation history, an effect known as assembly bias. We use zoom N -body simulations to investigate the origin of this phenomenon. For each halo at redshift z=0, we determine the time in which the physical volume containing its final mass becomes stable. We consider five examples for which this happens at z~1.5 and two that do not stabilize by z=0. The zoom simulations show that early-collapsing haloes do not grow in mass at z=0 while late-forming ones show a net inflow. The reason is that 'accreting' haloes are located at t…
The density profiles of dark matter haloes contain rich information about their growth history and physical properties. One particularly interesting region is the splashback radius, $R_{\rm sp}$, which marks the transition between particles orbiting in the halo and particles undergoing first infall. While the dependence of $R_{\rm sp}$ on the recent accretion rate is well established and theoretically expected, it is not clear exactly what parts of the accretion history $R_{\rm sp}$ responds to, and what other halo properties might additionally influence its position. We comprehensively invest…
We use two high resolution N-body simulations, one assuming general relativity and the other the Hu-Sawicki form of $f\left(R\right)$ gravity with $\vert \bar{f}_{R} \vert = 10^{-6}$, to investigate the concentration--formation time relation of dark matter haloes. We stack haloes in logarithmically spaced mass bins to fit median density profiles and extract median formation times. At fixed mass, haloes in modified gravity are more concentrated than those in GR, especially at low masses and at low redshift, and do not follow the concentration--formation time relation seen in GR. We assess the s…
The dynamical state and morphological features of galaxies and galaxy clusters, and their high-redshift precursors, are tightly connected with their assembly history, encoding crucial information about the formation and evolution of such cosmic structures. As a first step towards finding an optimal indicator of the assembly state of observed structures, we use a cosmological simulation of a moderate volume to critically examine the best definition of an indicator that is able to discriminate dark matter haloes undergoing mergers and/or strong accretion from haloes experimenting a relaxed evolu…
The shape of dark matter haloes plays a critical role in constraining cosmology with upcoming large-scale structure surveys. In this paper, we study the correlations between the triaxial shapes and formation histories in dark matter haloes in the MultiDark Planck 2 N-body cosmological simulation. We find that halo ellipticity is strongly correlated with halo properties that serve as proxies of halo formation history, such as halo concentration and the peak-centroid offset. In particular, the correlation between halo ellipticity and halo concentration is nearly independent of the halo density p…
Aims: It is well known that the presence of baryons affects the dark matter host haloes. Exploring the galaxy assembly history together with the dark matter haloes properties through time can provide a way to measure these effects. Methods: We study the properties of four Milky Way mass dark matter haloes from the Aquarius project during their assembly history, between $z = 0 - 4$. In this work, we use the SPH run from Scannapieco et al. (2009) and the dark matter only counterpart as case studies. To asses the robustness of our findings, we compare them with one of the haloes run using a movin…
The growth-rate and the internal dynamics of galaxy-sized dark-matter haloes depend on their location within the cosmic web. Haloes that sit at the nodes grow in mass till the present time and are dominated by radial orbits. Conversely, haloes embedded in prominent filaments do not change much in size and are dominated by tangential orbits. Using zoom hydrodynamical simulations including star formation and feedback, we study how gas accretes onto these different classes of objects that, for simplicity, we dub 'accreting' and 'stalled' haloes. We find that all haloes get a fresh supply of newly…
We present evidence for halo assembly bias as a function of geometric environment. By classifying GAMA galaxy groups as residing in voids, sheets, filaments or knots using a tidal tensor method, we find that low-mass haloes that reside in knots are older than haloes of the same mass that reside in voids. This result provides direct support to theories that link strong halo tidal interactions with halo assembly times. The trend with geometric environment is reversed at large halo mass, with haloes in knots being younger than haloes of the same mass in voids. We find a clear signal of halo downs…
We study the role of the local tidal environment in determining the assembly bias of dark matter haloes. Previous results suggest that the anisotropy of a halo's environment (i.e, whether it lies in a filament or in a more isotropic region) can play a significant role in determining the eventual mass and age of the halo. We statistically isolate this effect using correlations between the large-scale and small-scale environments of simulated haloes at $z=0$ with masses between $10^{11.6}\lesssim (m/h^{-1}M_{\odot})\lesssim10^{14.9}$. We probe the large-scale environment using a novel halo-by-ha…
Halo assembly bias is the secondary dependence of the clustering of dark-matter haloes on their assembly histories at fixed halo mass. This established dependence is expected to manifest itself on the clustering of the galaxy population, a potential effect commonly known as galaxy assembly bias. Using the IllustrisTNG300 magnetohydrodynamical simulation, we analyse the dependence of the properties and clustering of galaxies on the shape of the specific mass accretion history of their hosting haloes (sMAH). We first show that several halo and galaxy properties strongly correlate with the slope …
The concentration parameter is a key characteristic of a dark matter halo that conveniently connects the halo's present-day structure with its assembly history. Using 'Dark Sky', a suite of cosmological $N$-body simulations, we investigate how halo concentration evolves with time and emerges from the mass assembly history. We also explore the origin of the scatter in the relation between concentration and assembly history. We show that the evolution of halo concentration has two primary modes: (1) smooth increase due to pseudo-evolution; and (2) intense responses to physical merger events. Mer…
One of the main predictions of excursion set theory is that the clustering of dark matter haloes only depends on halo mass. However, it has been long established that the clustering of haloes also depends on other properties, including formation time, concentration, and spin; this effect is commonly known as halo assembly bias. We use a suite of gravity-only simulations to study the dependence of halo assembly bias on cosmology; these simulations cover cosmological parameters spanning 10$σ$ around state-of-the-art best-fitting values, including standard extensions of the $Λ$CDM paradigm such a…
The mass, accretion rate and formation time of dark matter haloes near proto-filaments (identified as saddle points of the potential) are analytically predicted using a conditional version of the excursion set approach in its so-called "upcrossing" approximation. The model predicts that at fixed mass, mass accretion rate and formation time vary with orientation and distance from the saddle, demonstrating that assembly bias is indeed influenced by the tides imposed by the cosmic web. Starved, early forming haloes of smaller mass lie preferentially along the main axis of filaments, while more ma…
Galactic star formation and accretion histories from matching galaxies to dark matter haloes
本文提出了一种新的统计方法来确定从z~4到现在的整个宇宙历史中星系的恒星质量与其宿主暗物质晕质量之间的关系。这种多历元丰度匹配（MEAM）模型自洽地考虑到卫星星系在比它们被观测到的时间更早的时候首先成为卫星。我们采用红移依赖的恒星晕质量关系的参数化填充晕和subhaloes在千年模拟与星系，需要同时再现观测到的恒星质量函数在几个红移。使用合并树提取的暗物质模拟结合MEAM，我们预测的平均组装历史的星系，分离成恒星形成的星系内（原位）和吸积的恒星（非原位）。随着红移的增加，恒星形成效率的峰值从z=0时的23%下降到z=4时的9%，而相应的晕质量从10^11.8 M \odot增加到10^12.5 M \odot。中心星系的恒星形成率在红移处达到峰值，这取决于晕的质量;对于大质量的晕，这个峰值出现在宇宙早期，而对于低质量的星系，这个峰值还没有达到。在类似于银河的晕中，大约一半的中心恒星质量在z=0.7之后聚集。在低质量晕中，卫星星系的吸积对中心星系的聚集贡献很小，而在大质量晕中，超过一半的中心恒星质量是在z<2的地方形成的，卫星星系的吸积很大。我们发现，我们的方法意味着一个宇宙恒星形成的历史和特定的恒星形成率的演变是一致的直接推断。我们提出了方便的拟合函数恒星质量，恒星形成率，吸积率作为晕质量和红移的函数。
The internal properties of dark matter haloes correlate with the large-scale halo clustering strength at fixed halo mass $-$ an effect known as assembly bias $-$ and are also strongly affected by the local, non-linear cosmic web. Characterising a halo's local web environment by its tidal anisotropy $α$ at scales $\sim4$ x the halo radius, we demonstrate that these multi-scale correlations represent two distinct statistical links: one between the internal property and $α$, and the other between $α$ and large-scale ( $>30h^{-1}$Mpc) halo bias $b_1$. We focus on scalar internal properties of halo…
We examine the stellar haloes of the Auriga simulations, a suite of thirty cosmological magneto-hydrodynamical high-resolution simulations of Milky Way-mass galaxies performed with the moving-mesh code AREPO. We study halo global properties and radial profiles out to $\sim 150$ kpc for each individual galaxy. The Auriga haloes are diverse in their masses and density profiles; mean metallicity and metallicity gradients; ages; and shapes, reflecting the stochasticity inherent in their accretion and merger histories. A comparison with observations of nearby late-type galaxies shows very good agre…
Formation and Evolution of Early-Type Galaxies. III Star formation history as a function of mass and over-density
我们调查的初始原星系的过度密度和质量对它们的演化的影响，了解是否原星系晕的内部属性是足以说明银河系人口的不同属性。通过完全流体动力学N体模拟与代码EvoL进行，我们产生了12个自相似模型的早期类型的星系不同的初始质量和过密度，以下其从z \geq 20到z \leq 1的演变。模拟包括辐射冷却，恒星形成，恒星能量反馈，再电离光加热背景，和化学富集的ISM。我们发现一个很强的相关性之间的初始属性的原晕和他们的恒星形成的历史。大规模（10^13 M \odot）晕经历一次单一的、强烈的恒星形成爆发（\geq 10^3 M \odot /yr），与观测结果一致，对初始超密度的依赖性不太明显;中等质量（10 ^11 M \odot）晕的历史强烈地依赖于它们的初始超密度，而小的（10^9 M \odot）晕总是有着支离破碎的历史，由于“星系呼吸”现象，导致了多个恒星星族。星系模型具有与真实星系相当的形态、结构和光度特性，通常与观测数据密切匹配;尽管仍然存在一些分歧，可能是一些数值选择的结果。我们的结论是，内部属性基本上是足够的解释许多早期类型的星系，特别是复杂的和不同的恒星形成的历史所示的晕的质量非常不同的观察到的功能。在这幅图景中，先天似乎起着主导作用，而后天教育则是次要的。
Cosmic voids provide a unique environment to study galaxy formation and evolution. In this paper, we analyse a set of hydrodynamic zoom-in simulations of voids, to analyse in detail their inner structures. These voids were identified in a cosmological simulation and classified according to their surrounding dynamics at very large scales: whether they are in expansion or contraction at their outskirts. We study how these environments and the dynamics of voids impact the baryonic processes inside haloes and their mechanisms of formation and evolution. We find an under-abundance of processed gas …
We develop a novel approach in exploring the joint dependence of halo bias on multiple halo properties using Gaussian process regression. Using a $Λ$CDM $N$-body simulation, we carry out a comprehensive study of the joint bias dependence on halo structure, formation history and environment. We show that the bias is a multivariate function of halo properties that falls into three regimes. For massive haloes, halo mass explains the majority of bias variation. For early-forming haloes, bias depends sensitively on the recent mass accretion history. For low-mass and late-forming haloes, bias depend…
Ultrafaint dwarf galaxies ($M_\star\lesssim10^{5-6}\,{\rm M}_\odot$) are relics of an early phase of galaxy formation. They contain some of the oldest and most metal-poor stars in the Universe which likely formed before the epoch of hydrogen reionisation. These galaxies are so faint that they can only be detected as satellites of the Milky Way. They are so small that they are just barely resolved in current cosmological hydrodynamics simulations. Here we combine very high resolution cosmological $N$-body simulations with a semi-analytic model of galaxy formation to study the demographics and s…
We examine the evolution of assembly bias using a semi-analytical model of galaxy formation implemented in the Millennium-WMAP7 N-body simulation. We consider fixed number density galaxy samples ranked by stellar mass or star formation rate. We investigate how the clustering of haloes and their galaxy content depend on halo formation time and concentration, and how these relationships evolve with redshift. At $z=0$ the dependences of halo clustering on halo concentration and formation time are similar. However, at higher redshift, halo assembly bias weakens for haloes selected by age, and reve…
Evidence shows properties of dark matter haloes may vary with large-scale environment. By studying the halo occupation distribution in cosmic voids it is possible to obtain useful information that can shed light on the subject. The history of the formation of the haloes and galaxies residing in these regions is likely to differ from the global behaviour given their extreme environment. We use two public access simulated galaxy catalogues constructed with different methods: a semi-analytical model and a hydrodynamic simulation. In both, we identify cosmic voids and we measure the halo occupatio…
The sizes of entire systems of globular clusters (GCs) depend on the formation and destruction histories of the GCs themselves, but also on the assembly, merger and accretion history of the dark matter (DM) haloes that they inhabit. Recent work has shown a linear relation between total mass of globular clusters in the globular cluster system and the mass of its host dark matter halo, calibrated from weak lensing. Here we extend this to GC system sizes, by studying the radial density profiles of GCs around galaxies in nearby galaxy groups. We find that radial density profiles of the GC systems …
At $z=0$, higher-spin haloes with masses above $\log(\text{M}_{\text{c}}/h^{-1}\text{M}_\odot)\simeq 11.5$ have a higher bias than lower-spin haloes of the same mass. However, this trend is known to invert below this characteristic crossover mass, $\text{M}_{\text{c}}$. In this paper, we measure the redshift evolution and scale dependence of halo spin bias at the low-mass end and demonstrate that the inversion of the signal is entirely produced by the effect of splashback haloes. These low-mass haloes tend to live in the vicinity of significantly more massive haloes, thus sharing their large-s…
The most massive protoclusters virialize to become clusters at $z\sim 2$, which is also a critical epoch for the evolution of their member galaxies. XLSSC 122 is a $z=1.98$ galaxy cluster with 37 spectroscopically confirmed members. We aim to characterize their star formation histories and to put them in the context of the cluster accretion history. We measure their photometry in 12 bands and create a PSF-matched catalogue of the cluster members. We employ BAGPIPES to fit star formation histories characterized by exponentially decreasing star-forming rates. Stellar masses, metal and dust conte…
With this Paper we complete a comprehensive study of substructure in dark matter haloes. In Paper I we derived the radial distribution and mass function (MF) of accreted subhaloes (scaled to the radius and mass of the host halo) and showed they are essentially universal. This is not the case, however, for those of stripped subhaloes, which depend on halo mass and assembly history. In Paper II we derived these latter properties in the simplest case of purely accreting haloes. Here we extend the study to ordinary haloes having suffered major mergers. After showing that all the properties of subs…
The tidal torque theory (TTT) relates the origin and evolution of angular momentum with the environment in which dark matter (DM) haloes form. The deviations introduced by late non-linearities are commonly thought as noise in the model. In this work, we analyze a cosmological simulation looking for systematics on these deviations, finding that the classification of DM haloes according to their angular momentum growth results in samples with different internal alignment, spin parameter distribution and assembly history. Based on this classification, we obtain that low mass haloes are embedded i…
