We investigate a purely stellar dynamical solution to the Final Parsec Problem. Galactic nuclei resulting from major mergers are not spherical, but show some degree of triaxiality. With $N$-body simulations, we show that massive black hole binaries (MBHB) hosted by them will continuously interact with stars on centrophilic orbits and will thus inspiral---in much less than a Hubble time---down to separations at which gravitational wave (GW) emission is strong enough to drive them to coalescence. Such coalescences will be important sources of GWs for future space-borne detectors such as the {\it Laser Interferometer Space Antenna} (LISA). Based on our results, we expect that LISA will see between $\sim 10$ to $\sim {\rm few} \times 10^2$ such events every year, depending on the particular MBH seed model as obtained in recent studies of merger trees of galaxy and MBH co-evolution. Orbital eccentricities in the LISA band will be clearly distinguishable from zero with $e \gtrsim 0.001-0.01$.
We evaluate the cosmological coalescence and detection rates for massive black hole (MBH) binaries targeted by the gravitational wave observatory Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA). Our calculation starts with a population of gravitationally unbound MBH pairs, drawn from the TNG50-3 cosmological simulation, and follows their orbital evolution from kpc scales all the way to coalescence using a semi-analytic model developed in our previous work. We find that for a majority of MBH pairs that coalesce within a Hubble time dynamical friction is the most important mechanism that determines th…
Pulsar timing observations are used to place constraints on the rate of coalescence of supermassive black-hole (SMBH) binaries as a function of mass and redshift. In contrast to the indirect constraints obtained from other techniques, pulsar timing observations provide a direct constraint on the black-hole merger rate. This is possible since pulsar timing is sensitive to the gravitational waves (GWs) emitted by these sources in the final stages of their evolution. We find that upper bounds calculated from the recently published Parkes Pulsar Timing Array data are just above theoretical predict…
Coalescing supermassive black hole binaries (BHBs) are expected to be the loudest sources of gravitational waves (GWs) in the Universe. Detection rates for ground or space-based detectors based on cosmological simulations and semi-analytic models are highly uncertain. A major difficulty stems from the necessity to model the BHB from the scale of the merger to that of inspiral. Of particular relevance to the GW merger timescale is the binary eccentricity. Here we present a self-consistent numerical study of the eccentricity of BHBs formed in massive gas-free mergers from the early stages of the…
We propose a new formation channel for intermediate mass black hole (IMBH) binaries via globular cluster collisions in the Galactic disc. Using numerical simulations, we show that the IMBHs form a tight binary that enters the gravitational waves (GWs) emission dominated regime driven by stellar interactions, and ultimately merge in $\lesssim 0.5$ Gyr. These events are clearly audible to LISA and can be associated with electromagnetic emission during the last evolutionary stages. During their orbital evolution, the IMBHs produce runaway stars comparable with GAIA and LAMOST observations.
Massive black hole binaries are naturally predicted in the context of the hierarchical model of structure formation. The binaries that manage to lose most of their angular momentum can coalesce to form a single remnant. In the last stages of this process, the holes undergo an extremely loud phase of gravitational wave emission, possibly detectable by current and future probes. The theoretical effort towards obtaining a coherent physical picture of the binary path down to coalescence is still underway. In this paper, for the first time, we take advantage of observational studies of active galac…
In currently favoured hierarchical cosmologies, the formation of massive black hole binaries (MBHBs) following galaxy mergers is unavoidable. Still, due the complex physics governing the (hydro)dynamics of the post-merger dense environment of stars and gas in galactic nuclei, the final fate of those MBHBs is still unclear. In gas-rich environments, it is plausible that turbulence and gravitational instabilities feed gas to the nucleus in the form of a series of cold incoherent clumps, thus providing a way to exchange energy and angular momentum between the MBHB and its surroundings. Within thi…
Massive black hole binaries are predicted to form during the hierarchical assembly of cosmic structures and will represent the loudest sources of low-frequency gravitational waves (GWs) detectable by present and forthcoming GW experiments. Before entering the GW-driven regime, their evolution is driven by the interaction with the surrounding stars and gas. While stellar interactions are found to always shrink the binary, recent studies predict the possibility of binary outspiral mediated by the presence of a gaseous disk, which could endlessly delay the coalescence and impact the merger rates …
The coalescence of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) should generate the strongest sources of gravitational waves (GWs) in the Universe. However, the dynamics of their coalescence is the subject of much debate. In this study, we use a suite of $N$-body simulations to follow the merger of two nuclear star clusters (NSCs), each hosting a SMBH in their centre. We find that the presence of distinct star clusters around each SMBH has important consequences for the dynamical evolution of the SMBH binary: (i) The separation between the SMBHs decreases by a few orders of magnitude in the first few Myrs…
Dual active galaxy nuclei (dAGNs) trace the population of post-merger galaxies and are the precursors to massive black hole (MBH) mergers, an important source of gravitational waves that may be observed by LISA. In Paper I of this series, we used the population of nearly 2000 galaxy mergers predicted by the TNG50-3 simulation to seed semi-analytic models of the orbital evolution and coalescence of MBH pairs with initial separations of about 1 kpc. Here, we calculate the dAGN luminosities and separation of these pairs as they evolve in post-merger galaxies, and show how the coalescence fraction…
The expected event rate of lensed gravitational wave sources scales with the merger rate at redshift $z\geq 1$, where the optical depth for lensing is high. It is commonly assumed that the merger rate of the astrophysical compact objects is closely connected with the star formation rate, which peaks around redshift $z\sim 2$. However, a major source of uncertainty is the delay time between the formation and merger of compact objects. We explore the impact of delay time on the lensing event rate. We show that as the delay time increases, the peak of the merger rate of gravitational wave sources…
We develop a detailed anisotropic model for the astrophysical gravitational-wave background, including binary mergers of two stellar-mass black holes, two neutron stars, or one of each, which are expected to be the strongest contributions in the LIGO-Virgo frequency band. The angular spectrum of the anisotropies, quantified by the $C_\ell$ components, is calculated using two complementary approaches: (i) a simple, closed-form analytical expression, and (ii) a detailed numerical study using an all-sky mock light cone galaxy catalogue from the Millennium simulation. The two approaches are in exc…
Galaxy mergers produce supermassive black hole binaries, which emit gravitational waves prior to their coalescence. We perform three-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations to study the tidal disruption of stars by such a binary in the final centuries of its life. We find that the gas stream of the stellar debris moves chaotically in the binary potential and forms accretion disks around both black holes. The accretion light curve is modulated over the binary orbital period owing to relativistic beaming. This periodic signal allows to detect the decay of the binary orbit due to gravitational wave …
During a galaxy merger, the supermassive black hole (SMBH) in each galaxy is thought to sink to the center of the potential and form a supermassive black hole binary; this binary can eject stars via 3-body scattering, bringing the SMBHs ever closer. In a static spherical galaxy model, the binary stalls at a separation of about a parsec after ejecting all the stars in its loss cone -- this is the well-known final parsec problem. However it has been shown that SMBH binaries in non-spherical galactic nuclei harden at a nearly constant rate until reaching the gravitational wave regime. Here we use…
We report on high-resolution simulations that explore the orbital decay of massive black hole (MBH) pairs with masses between $10^5$ and $10^7 M_{\odot}$ embedded in a circumnuclear gas disk (CND). An adiabatic equation of state is adopted, with a range of adiabatic indices, which maintains a smooth flow. Mergers between MBHs in this mass range would be detectable by the upcoming Laser Inteferometer Space Antenna (LISA). The orbital evolution is followed from the CND scale ($100$~pc) down to separations of $0.1$--$0.01$~pc at which a circumbinary disk (CBD) could form. The decay is erratic and…
The evolution of Supermassive Black Holes (SMBHs) initially embedded in the centres of merging galaxies realised with a stellar mass function (SMF) is studied from the onset of galaxy mergers till coalescence. We performed a large set of direct N-body simulations with three different slopes of the central stellar cusp and different random seeds. Post Newtonian terms up to order 3.5 are used to drive the SMBH binary evolution in the relativistic regime. The impact of a SMF on the hardening rate and the coalescence time is investigated. We find that SMBH binaries coalesce well within one billion…
We introduce a new model for the accretion and feedback of supermassive black hole (SMBH) binaries to the KETJU code, which enables us to resolve the evolution of SMBH binaries down to separations of tens of Schwarzschild radii in gas-rich galaxy mergers. Our subgrid binary accretion model extends the widely used Bondi--Hoyle--Lyttleton accretion into the binary phase and incorporates preferential mass accretion onto the secondary SMBH, which is motivated by results from small-scale hydrodynamical circumbinary disc simulations. We perform idealised gas-rich disc galaxy merger simulations using…
We study the impact of the neutron star binaries' (NSBs) natal kick distribution on the Galactic r-process enrichment. We model the growth of a Milky Way type halo based on N-body simulation results and its star formation history based on multi epoch abundance matching techniques. We consider the NSBs that merge well beyond the galaxy's effective radius ($>2\times R_\mathrm{eff}$) do not contribute to Galactic r-process enrichment. Assuming a power-law delay-time distribution (DTD) function ($\propto t^{-1}$) with $t_\mathrm{min}=30$ Myr for binaries' coalescence timescales, and an exponential…
The multitude of binary black hole coalescence detections in gravitational waves has renewed our interest on environments that can be the cradle of these mergers. In this work we study merger rates of binary black holes in globular clusters that are among the most dense stellar environments and a natural place for the creation of black hole binaries. To model these systems with all their variations we rely on the observational properties of the known Milky Way globular clusters. We consider direct capture events between black holes, as well as soft interactions of black hole binaries with star…
