We review general characteristics of massive stars, present the main observable constraints that stellar models should reproduce. We discuss the impact of massive star nucleosynthesis on the early phases of the chemical evolution of the Milky Way (MW). We show that rotating models can account for the important primary nitrogen production needed at low metallicity. Interestingly such rotating models can also better account for other features as the variation with the metallicity of the C/O ratio. Damped Lyman Alpha (DLA) systems present similar characteristics as the halo of the MW for what concern the N/O and C/O ratios. Although in DLAs, the star formation history might be quite different from that of the halo, in these systems also, rotating stars (both massive and intermediate) probably play an important role for explaining these features. The production of primary nitrogen is accompanied by an overproduction of other elements as $^{13}$C, $^{22}$Ne and s-process elements. We show also how the observed variation with the metallicity of the number ratio of type Ibc to type II supernovae may be a consequence of the metallicity dependence of the line-driven stellar winds.
Recent models of galactic chemical evolution account for updated evolutionary models of massive stars (with special emphasis on stellar winds) and for the effects of intermediate mass and massive binaries. The results are summarised. We also present a critical discussion on possible effects of stellar rotation on overall galactic chemical evolutionary simulations.
New low and intermediate star yields calculated by Buell (1997) are evaluated by using them in a Galactic Chemical Evolution model. We analyze their effects on CNO elemental abundances
The basic principles underlying galactic chemical evolution and the most important results of chemical evolution models are discussed. In particular, the chemical evolution of the Milky Way galaxy, for which we possess the majority of observational constraints, is described. Then, it is shown how different star formation histories influence the chemical evolution of galaxies of different morphological type. Finally, the role of abundances and abundance ratios as cosmic clocks is emphasized and a comparison between model predictions and abundance patterns in high redshift objects is used to inf…
We summarise the results of recent work investigating the effects of stellar yields which take into account rotation on the predictions of chemical evolution models for early populations of galaxies.
Chemical evolution of galaxies brings together ideas on stellar evolution and nucleosynthesis with theories of galaxy formation, star formation and galaxy evolution, with all their associated uncertainties. In a new perspective brought about by the Hubble Deep Field and follow-up investigations of global star formation rates, diffuse background etc., it has become necessary to consider the chemical composition of dark baryonic matter as well as that of visible matter in galaxies.
We develop a numerical chemical model allowing for radial flows of gas, with the aim to analyse the possible role of gas flows in the chemical evolution of the Galactic Disc. The dynamical effects of the Galactic Bar on the radial gas profile of the Disc are especially addressed.
We have computed a grid of multiphase chemical evolution models whose results are valid for any spiral galaxy, using as input the maximum rotation velocity and the morphological type or index T.
We study the effect of a single, instantaneous starburst in a gas-rich dwarf galaxy on the dynamical and chemical evolution of its interstellar medium. We consider the energetic input and the chemical yields originating from SNeII, SNeIa and intermediate-mass stars. We find that a galaxy resembling IZw18 develops a galactic wind carrying out mostly the metal-rich gas. The various metals are lost differentially and the metals produced by the SNeIa are lost more efficiently than the others. As a consequence, we find larger [$α$/Fe] ratios for the gas inside the galaxy than for the gas leaving th…
We present first results of an implementation of chemical evolution in a cosmological hydrodynamical code, focusing the analysis on the effects of cooling baryons according to their metallicity. We found that simulations with primordial cooling can underestimate the star formation rate from $z < 3$ and by up to $\approx 20 %$. We constructed simulated spectra by combining the star formation and chemical history of galactic systems with spectra synthesis models and assess the impact of chemical evolution on the energy distribution.
The major effects of the chemical evolution of galaxies on the characteristics of their stellar populations are reviewed. A few examples of how the observed stellar properties derived from colour--magnitude diagrams can constrain chemical evolution models are given.
Chemical composition is a good tracer of hydrodynamical processes that occur in stars as they often lead to mixing and particle transport. By comparing abundances predicted by models and those observed in stars we can infer some constraints on those mixing processes. As pulsations in stars are often very sensitive to chemical composition, we can use asteroseismology to probe the internal chemical composition of stars where no direct observations are possible. In this paper I focus on main sequence stars Am, lambda bootis, and HgMn stars and discuss what we can learn of mixing processes in thos…
The globular cluster Omega Centauri displays evidence of a complex star formation history and peculiar internal chemical evolution, setting it apart from essentially all other globular clusters of the Milky Way. In this review we discuss the nature of the chemical evolution that has occurred within Omega Cen and attempt to construct a simple scenario to explain its chemistry.
A few results that indicate the presence of temperature variations in gaseous nebulae are reviewed. The evidence is based on: a) temperatures derived from different methods, and b) on comparisons of abundances predicted by models of galactic chemical evolution with abundances derived from observations.
We report first results of an implementation of a chemical model in a cosmological code, based on the Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) technique. We show that chemical SPH simulations are a promising tool to provide clues for the understanding of the chemical properties of galaxies in relation to their formation and evolution in a cosmological framework.
We have compiled all available data on chemical abundances in damped Lyman alpha absorption systems for comparison with results from our combined chemical and spectrophotometric galaxy evolution models. Preliminary results from chemically consistent calculations are in agreement with observations of damped Ly$α$ systems.
We present a self-consistent model under a star-bursting scenario for H{\sc ii} galaxies, combining different codes of chemical evolution, evolutionary population synthesis and photoionization. The results obtained reproduce simultaneoulsy the observed abundances, diagnostic diagrams and equivalent width-colour relations for local H{\sc ii} galaxies.
We present preliminary results on the effects of mergers on the chemical properties of galactic objects in hierarchical clustering scenarios. We adopt a hydrodynamical chemical code that allows to describe the coupled evolution of dark matter and baryons within a cosmological context. We found that disk-like and spheroid-like objects have distinctive metallicity patterns that may be the result of different evolution.
We present a new model for the chemical evolution of elliptical galaxies taking into account SN feedback, detailed nucleosynthesis and galactic winds. We discuss the effect of galactic winds on the chemical enrichment of the ICM and compute the energy per particle injected by the galaxies into the ICM.
We develop a toy-model for the chemical evolution of the intracluster medium, polluted by the galactic winds from elliptical galaxies. The model follows the "galaxy formation history" of cluster galaxies, constrained by the observed luminosity function.
We examine the characteristics of nucleosynthesis in 'hypernovae', i.e., supernovae with very large explosion energies ($\gsim 10^{52}$ ergs). Implications for the cosmic chemical evolution and the abundances in M82 are discussed.
In this series of lectures we first describe the basic ingredients of galactic chemical evolution and discuss both analytical and numerical models. Then we compare model results for the Milky Way, Dwarf Irregulars, Quasars and the Intra-Cluster- Medium with abundances derived from emission lines. These comparisons allow us to put strong constraints on the stellar nucleosynthesis and the mechanisms of galaxy formation.
The asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase of stellar evolution is common to most stars of low and intermediate mass. Most of the carbon and nitrogen in the Universe is produced by AGB stars. The final fate of the AGB envelopes are represented by planetary nebulae (PN). By studying PN abundances and compare them with the yields of stellar evolution is possible to quantify carbon and nitrogen production, and to study cosmic recycling in galactic and Magellanic Cloud populations. In this paper we present the latest results in PN chemical abundance analysis and their implication to the chemical evol…
We describe an SPH model for chemical enrichment and radiative cooling in cosmological simulations of structure formation. This model includes: i) the delayed gas restitution from stars by means of a probabilistic approach designed to reduce the statistical noise and, hence, to allow for the study of the inner chemical structure of objects with moderately high numbers of particles; ii) the full dependence of metal production on the detailed chemical composition of stellar particles by using, for the first time in SPH codes, the Qij matrix formalism that relates each nucleosynthetic product to …
The determination of chemical abundances in star-forming galaxies and the study of their evolution on cosmological timescales are powerful tools for understanding galaxy formation and evolution. This contribution presents the latest results in this domain. We show that detailed studies of chemical abundances in UV-selected, HII and starburst nucleus galaxies, together with the development of new chemical evolution models, put strong constraints on the evolutionary stage of these objects in terms of star formation history. Finally, we summarize our current knowledge on the chemical properties o…
Any stellar system with a star formation history (SFH) more extended than a massive star's lifetime will be composite in metallicity. Our method of chemically consistent evolutionary synthesis tries to account for the increasing initial metallicity of successive generations of stars. Using various sets of input physics for a range of metallicities $10^{-4} \leq Z \leq 0.05$ we keep track of the ISM enrichment and follow successive generations of stars using stellar evolutionary tracks, yields, model atmosphere spectra, index calibrations, etc., appropriate for their respective initial metallic…
Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) stars are important players in the chemical evolution modelling of galaxies, because they are major producers of several chemical elements and excellent tracers of the structure and of the star formation activity of their parent galaxies. A few examples on the importance of AGB stars are presented in this review, together with a number of open problems affecting chemical evolution model predictions related to the element enrichment by AGB stars: the evolution of $^4$He and Na in globular clusters, the evolution of $^3$He and the carbon isotopes in the Galactic dis…
Measurements of element abundances in damped Lyman alpha systems are providing new means to investigate the chemical evolution of galaxies, particularly at early times. We review progress in this area, concentrating on recent efforts to extend the range of existing surveys to both higher and lower redshifts.
The measurement of chemical abundances in planetary nebulae in nearby galaxies is now relatively straightforward. The challenge is to use these chemical abundances to infer the chemical evolution of their host galaxies. At this point, our understanding of chemical evolution based upon planetary nebulae in galaxies without star formation is strongly coupled to our understanding of the relationship between the chemical abundances in stars and planetary nebulae in the Milky Way bulge. Supposing that the same relation holds in all systems where star formation ceased long ago, these systems follow …
In the present paper we investigate in how far stars with an initial mass larger than 40Mo affect the chemical enrichment of the Galaxy. We illustrate the importance for chemical yields of a most up to date treatment of the various stellar wind mass loss episodes in stellar evolutionary codes and we discuss the effects of a possible supernova-like outburst prior to massive black hole formation.
We have combined measurements of the kinematics, morphology, and oxygen abundance of the ionized gas in \IZw18, one of the most metal-poor galaxies known, to examine the star formation history and chemical mixing processes.
For several decades now, open clusters have been used to study the structure and chemical evolution of the disk of our Galaxy. Due to the fact that their ages and metallicities can be determined with relatively good precision, and since they can be observed even at great distances, they are excellent tracers of the variations in the abundance of heavy chemical elements with age and position in the Galactic disk. In the present work we analyze the star formation history and the chemical evolution of the disk of the Galaxy using numerical simulations of the dynamical evolution of the system of o…
We present results for the chemical evolution of the Milky Way including predictions for elements from Deuterium to Europium. A comparison with the most accurate and recent data allows us to draw important conclusions on stellar nucleosynthesis processes as well as on mechanisms of galaxy formation.
I present here our project, the Bologna Open Clusters Chemical Evolution (BOCCE) project, aimed at using Open Clusters as tracers of the disk properties and their evolution with time. We are collecting and homogeneously analyzing data, both photometric and spectroscopic, on a large sample of open clusters, representative of the old cluster population, and I show here results obtained on a subset of our clusters.
Two sets of observational carbon stellar yields for low-and-intermediate mass stars are computed based on planetary nebula abundances derived from C II lambda 4267 and C III lambda lambda 1906 + 1909 lines, respectively. These observational yields are assumed in chemical evolution models for the solar vicinity and the Galactic disk. C/O values observed in stars of the solar vicinity and Galactic H II regions are compared with those predicted by chemical evolution models for the Galaxy. I conclude that the C yields derived from permitted lines are in better agreement with the observational cons…
We use our unified chemical and spectrophotometric evolutionary synthesis code to describe galaxies of various Hubble types. With stellar evolutionary tracks and element yields for 5 different metallicities we follow the spectrophotometric evolution of composite stellar populations and the chemical evolution of ISM abundances in a chemically consistent way, i.e., accounting for the increasing initial metallicities of successive generations of stars. Evolutionary galaxy models are required to give agreement with template nearby galaxies of various Hubble types in terms of SEDs, stellar absorpti…
In this paper we discuss the chemical evolution of elliptical galaxies and its consequences on the evolution of the intracluster medium (ICM). We use chemical evolution models taking into account dark matter halos and compare the results with previous models where dark matter was not considered. In particular, we examine the evolution of the abundances of some relevant heavy elements such as oxygen, magnesium and iron and conclude that models including dark matter halos and an initial mass function (IMF) containing more massive stars than the Salpeter (1955) IMF, better reproduce the observed …
In this series of lectures I discuss the basic principles and the modelling of the chemical evolution of galaxies. In particular, I present models for the chemical evolution of the Milky Way galaxy and compare them with the available observational data. From this comparison one can infer important constraints on the mechanism of formation of the Milky Way as well as on stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova progenitors. Models for the chemical evolution of elliptical galaxies are also shown in the framework of the two competing scenarios for galaxy formation: monolithic and hierachical. The evo…
Blue Compact Dwarf and Dwarf Irregular galaxies are generally believed to be unevolved objects, due to their blue colors, compact appearance and large gas fractions. Many of these objects show an ongoing intense burst of star formation or have experienced it in the recent past. By means of 2-D hydrodynamical simulations, coupled with detailed chemical yields originating from SNeII, SNeIa, and intermediate-mass stars, we study the dynamical and chemical evolution of model galaxies with structural parameters similar to NGC1569, a prototypical starburst galaxy. A burst of star formation with shor…
We show a grid of multiphase models whose results are valid for any spiral galaxy, using as input the luminosity or the rotation velocity and the morphological type, measured by the classical index T from 1 to 10.
We compare chemical abundances of Local Group dwarf spheroidals, obtained from recent UVES/VLT observations, and of high redshift Damped Lyman alpha systems (DLAs), corrected for dust effects. We focus, in particular, on the abundance ratio between alpha-capture elements and iron, alpha/Fe, a well known indicator of chemical evolution. Comparison of the data in the plane alpha/Fe versus Fe/H shows a remarkable similarity between the dwarf spheroidals and the DLAs, suggestive of a common trend in their chemical evolution. At any given metallicity these two distinct types of astronomical targets…
We show that the multiphase chemical evolution model reproduces the correlations obtained along the spiral sequence, dwarf galaxies included. However the apparent spatial chemical uniformity observed in some irregular galaxies cannot be reproduced with it. An evolutionary model has been developed and tested to explain flat gradients. Preliminary results, obtained with a new code including supernova winds and radial flows, suggest that radial flows are probably responsably for this uniformity
The rotation curves for a sample of 67 spiral galaxies observed by Marquez et al(2002) have been used as input for the multiphase chemicale volution model. By using N[II]/Halpha as estimator of the oxygen abundance, we constraint the possible models for each galaxy. We may, then, predict the time evolution of these galaxies and the present time radial distribution for gas, stars and star formation surface densities and elemental abundances.
Spectroscopic observations of distant cosmological sources continue to exhibit a surprising result; that the chemical abundance of the universe seems to be approximately solar for the observed sources at redshifts of 5, 6, and even 7, even though very few galaxies should have existed at these epochs and the principal star formation and heavy element production event should have been at the more local z = 1 - 2.
This paper contains the lectures I delivered during the 37th Saas-Fee Advanced Course in March 2007. It reviews all the main ingredients necessary to build galactic chemical evolution models with particular attention to the Milky Way and the dwarf spheroidals of the Local Group. Both analytical and numerical models are discussed. Model results are compared to observations in order to infer constraints on stellar nucleosynthesis and on the formation and evolution of galaxies.Particular attention is devoted to interpret abundance ratios in galaxies with different star formation histories. Finall…
Some aspects of the chemical evolution of late-type dwarf galaxies are reviewed, together with their implications on three issues of cosmological relevance: similarity to primeval galaxies, derivation of the primordial helium abundance, contribution to the excess of faint blue galaxies. A more detailed approach to model their evolution is suggested. The importance of deriving the star formation history in these systems by studying their resolved stellar populations is emphasized.
Numerical models for the chemical evolution of the Galaxy have been computed with the new stellar yields published by Maeder (1992). These metallicity dependent yields represent an important improvement in the chemical evolution of galaxies but there are still uncertainties in the stellar evolution which prevent completely satisfactory results. {}From the comparison of the model predictions with the corresponding observational constraints we find that Maeder's nucleosynthesis reproduces the oxygen and carbon abundances and provides consistent $Δ$Y/$Δ$(O/H) ratios if a significant amount of gas…
We describe the basic features of a Monte Carlo model specifically designed to follow the inhomogenous chemical evolution of the Galactic halo, taking into account the effects of local enrichment and mixing of the halo gas, and with particular emphasis on elements like Eu produced by r-process nucleosynthesis. We compare our results with spectroscopic data for the chemical composition of metal-poor halo stars and globular clusters like M13, M5, M92, M4, and we infer some constraints on the star formation history of the halo and the rate and mass spectrum of supernovae during the first epoch of…
Chemical abundances provide important clues to the evolution of galaxies. Ionized nebulae are one of the main sources of chemical abundance measurements, especially in external galaxies. Studies of H II regions have shown that the overall metallicity of galaxies increases with galactic luminosity, and that spiral galaxies characteristically have radial gradients in chemical composition. There are indications of environmental influences on chemical abundances. Planetary nebulae provide another measure of abundances in the Milky Way and other galaxies. Space facilities have allowed measurements …
A short overview is presented of the role that Low and Intermediate mass stars play in Galactic Chemical Evolution; their action affects key elements and isotopes, like deuterium, He-3, Li-7, carbon and nitrogen, and s-process nuclei. In all those cases, critical uncertainties still remain and are briefly discussed here.
The field of chemical evolution modeling of the Galaxy is experiencing in the last years a phase of high activity and important achievements. There are, however, several open questions which still need to be answered. In this review I summarize what have been the most important achievements and what are some of the most urgent questions to be answered.
The formalism of the simple model of galactic chemical evolution (GCE) and its main ingredients (stellar properties, initial mass function, star formation rate and gas flows) are presented in this tutorial. It is stressed that GCE is not (yet) an astrophysical theory, but it merely provides a framework in which the large body of data concerning the chemical composition of stars and gas in galaxies may be intrepreted. A few examples illustrating those concepts are provided, through studies of the Solar neighborhood and of the Milky Way's halo.
We investigate the star formation history and chemical evolution of Low Surface Brightness (LSB) spiral galaxies by means of their observed spectro-photometric and chemical properties. We present preliminary results for Johnson-Cousins UBVRI magnitudes and stellar [O/H] abundance ratios using a galactic chemical evolution model incorporating a detailed metallicity dependent set of stellar input data covering all relevant stages of stellar evolution. Comparison of our model results with observations confirms the idea that LSB galaxies are relatively unevolved systems. However, we argue that rec…
Understanding the galaxy in which we live is one of the great intellectual challenges facing modern science. With the advent of high quality observational data, the chemical evolution modeling of our galaxy has been the subject of numerous studies in the last years. However, all these studies have one missing element which is the evolution of close binaries. Reason: their evolution is very complex and single stars only perhaps can do the job. (Un)Fortunately at present we know that a significant fraction of the observed intermediate mass and massive stars are members of a binary or multiple sy…
The chemical evolution history of a galaxy hides clues about how it formed and has been changing through time. We have studied the chemical evolution history of the Milky Way (MW) and Andromeda (M31) to find which are common features in the chemical evolution of disc galaxies as well as which are galaxy-dependent. We use a semi-analytic multi-zone chemical evolution model. Such models have succeeded in explaining the mean trends of the observed chemical properties in these two Local Group spiral galaxies with similar mass and morphology. Our results suggest that while the evolution of the MW a…
Invited Review at IAU Symp 164 on Stellar Populations. The Milky Way Galaxy offers a unique opportunity for testing theories of galaxy formation and evolution. The study of the spatial distribution, kinematics and chemical abundances of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy allows one to address specific questions pertinent to this meeting such as When was the Galaxy assembled? Is this an ongoing process? What was the merging history of the Milky Way?
Both analytic and numerical radiative transfer models applied to high spectral resolution CS and N2H+ data give insight into the evolutionary state of L1551 MC. This recently discovered pre-protostellar core in L1551 appears to be in the early stages of dynamical evolution. Line-of-sight infall velocities of >0.1km/s are needed in the outer regions of L1551 MC to adequately fit the data. This translates to an accretion rate of ~ 1e-6 Msun/yr, uncertain to within a factor of 5 owing to unknown geometry. The observed dynamics are not due to spherically symmetric gravitational collapse and are no…
