This is a very short conference proceeding based on a poster shown at the ESO workshop "Science with the VLT in the ELT Era". For more information, see "The Afterglows of Swift-era Gamma-Ray Bursts. I. Comparing pre-Swift and Swift era Long/Soft (Type II) GRB Optical Afterglows" (arXiv:0712.2186) as well as "The Afterglows of Swift-era Gamma-Ray Bursts. II. Short/Hard (Type I) vs. Long/Soft (Type II) Optical Afterglows" (arXiv:0804.1959)
We better determine the spectral flux distribution of the supernova candidate associated with GRB 970228 by modeling the spectral flux distribution of the host galaxy of this burst, fitting this model to measurements of the host galaxy, and using the fitted model to better subtract out the contribution of the host galaxy to measurements of the afterglow of this burst. Furthermore, we discuss why the non-detection of a SN1998bw-like component to the afterglow of GRB 990510 does not necessarily imply that a SN is not associated with this burst. Finally, we discuss how bursts can be used as beaco…
We show that the clumpy structure of star-forming regions can naturally explain the fact that 50-70% of GRB afterglows are optically ``dark.'' We also show that dust echos from the GRB and its afterglow, produced by the clumpy structure of the star-forming region in which the GRB occurs, can lead to temporal variability and peaks in the NIR, optical, and UV lightcurves of GRB afterglows. We note that the detection of GRB ``orphan'' afterglows would provide strong evidence that the star-forming regions in which GRBs occur are clumpy.
We show that the clumpy structure of star-forming regions can naturally explain the fact that 50-70% of GRB afterglows are optical``dark.'' We also show that dust echos from the GRB and its afterglow, produced by the clumpy structure of the star-forming region in which the GRB occurs, can lead to temporal variability and peaks in the NIR, optical, and UV lightcurves of GRB afterglows.
A formula for off-axis emissions from the beamed afterglow of GRBs in a synchrotron model is derived. The formula is applied to an inhomogeneous circumstellar matter obeying n proportional to 1/r**2 suggested for SN1998bw/GRB980425. The slow decline rate as well as the X-ray flux similar to the observed values are obtained for appropriate choice of the parameters so that the association of GRB980425 with SN1998bw is further strengthened.
The X-ray afterglows of GRB 001025A and GRB 010220 were detected by XMM-Newton with an average 0.2--10.0 keV flux of 4.4 and 3.3x10^{-14} erg cm^{-2} s^{-1} respectively; the afterglow of GRB 001025A is observed to decay. Afterglows at other wavelengths were not detected for either burst. A set of broadened soft X-ray emission lines are detected in the afterglow of GRB 001025A, at 5.0 sigma significance above a Galactic-absorbed power-law continuum. The spectra of both afterglows are significantly better fit by a variable abundance thermal plasma model than by an absorbed power-law and are con…
At the time of its discovery, the optical and X-ray afterglow of GRB 970228 appeared to be a ringing endorsement of the previously untried relativistic fireball model of gamma-ray burst (GRB) afterglows, but now that nearly a dozen optical afterglows to GRBs have been observed, the wavering light curve and reddening spectrum of this afterglow make it perhaps the most difficult of the observed afterglows to reconcile with the fireball model. In this Letter, we argue that this afterglow's unusual temporal and spectral properties can be attributed to a supernova that overtook the light curve near…
We analyze images of the CFHTLS Very Wide Survey to search for visible orphan afterglows from gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). We have searched 490 square degrees down to magnitude r'=22.5 for visible transients similar to GRB afterglows. We translate our observations into constraints on the number of GRB visible afterglows in the sky, by measuring the detection efficiency of our search with a simulation reproducing the characteristics of our observational strategy and the properties of on-axis GRB afterglows. We have found only three potential candidates, of which two are most probably variable stars…
We report on the status of our search for X-ray afterglows of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) using the ROSAT all-sky survey data. The number of potential X-ray afterglow candidates with respect to the expected number of beamed GRBs allows to constrain the relative beaming angles of GRB emission and afterglow emission at about 1-5 hrs after the GRB.
I review gamma-ray burst optical/multiwavelength afterglow observations since 1997, when the first counterparts to GRBs were discovered. I discuss what we have learned from multiwavelength observations of GRB afterglows in relation to the `standard' fireball plus relativistic blast-wave models. To first order the `standard' model describes the afterglow observations well, but a wealth of information can be gathered from the deviations of GRB afterglow observations from this `standard' model. These deviations provide information on the nature of the progenitor and on the physics of GRB producti…
We explore the prospects for simultaneous, broad-band, multiwavelength polarimetric observations of GRB afterglows. We focus on the role of cosmic dust in GRB host galaxies on the observed percentage polarization of afterglows in the optical/near-infrared bands as a function of redshift. Our driving point is the afterglow of GRB 030329, for which we obtained polarimetric data in the R band and K band simultaneously about 1.5 days after the burst. We argue that polarimetric observations can be very sensitive to dust in a GRB host, because dust can render the polarization of an afterglow wavelen…
We present time resolved optical data acquired by the TAROT automated observatory on the afterglow of GRB 050525a from 6 to 136 minutes after the GRB. We evidence a rapid re-brightening of 0.65 magnitude of the afterglow at $\sim$ 33 min after the GRB. The decay slope $α$ is $1.14\pm 0.07$ in the first part and is $1.23\pm 0.27$ after the re-brightening event. The afterglow of GRB 050525a is the third known afterglow that exhibits a re-brightening event begining at 0.01--0.02 day in the rest time frame.
GRB970228 is analyzed as a prototype to understand the relative role of short GRBs and their associated afterglows, recently observed by Swift and HETE-II. Detailed theoretical computation of the GRB970228 light curves in selected energy bands are presented and compared with observational BeppoSAX data.
The detection of delayed X-ray, optical and radio emission, "afterglow", associated with $γ$-ray bursts (GRBs) is consistent with fireball models, where the emission are produced by relativistic expanding blast wave, driven by expanding fireball at cosmogical distances. The emission mechanisms of GRB afterglow have been discussed by many authors and synchrotron radiation is believed to be the main mechanism. The observations show that the optical light curves of two observed gamma-ray bursts, GRB970228 and GRB GRB970508, can be described by a simple power law, which seems to support the synchr…
Time-dependent thermal effects should accompany standard non-thermal afterglows of GRB when gamma-rays pass through inhomogeneous surroundings of the GRB site. Thermal relaxation of an optically thin plasma is calculated using time-dependent collisional ionization of the plasma ion species. X-ray emission lines are similar to those found in the fading X-ray afterglow of GRB 011211. Thermal relaxation of clouds or shells around the GRB site could also contribute to the varying late optical GRB afterglows, such as in GRB021004 and GRB030329.
Particle acceleration in relativistic shocks is not a very well understood subject. Owing to that difficulty, radiation spectra from relativistic shocks, such as those in GRB afterglows, have been often modelled by making assumptions about the underlying electron distribution. One such assumption is a relatively soft distribution of the particle energy, which need not be true always, as is obvious from observations of several GRB afterglows. In this paper, we describe modifications to the afterglow standard model to accommodate energy spectra which are `hard'. We calculate the overall evolutio…
If Wolf-Rayet stars are the progenitors of Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), they must rotate rapidly to produce the GRB. This rotation may effect their stellar-wind bubbles and possibly explain why so many GRB afterglows occur in a constant density medium.
Polarization has been observed in a number of GRB afterglows. We briefly review the models that have been proposed to account for the observed polarization levels. We summarize the observations and the attempts to explain them with existing models.
We present the data acquired by the TAROT automated observatory on the afterglow of GRB 020531. Up to now, no convincing afterglow emission has been reported for this short/hard GRB at any wavelength, including X-ray and optical. The combination of our early limits, with other published data allows us to put severe constraints on the afterglow magnitude and light curve. The limiting magnitude is 18.5 in R band, 88 minutes after the GRB, and the decay slope power law index could be larger than 2.2.
We show that if the GRB ejecta itself is magnetized or neutron-rich, the very early afterglow of GRBs is very different from that powered by a pure ion fireball. In the Swift era, with the well monitored early afterglow data, we can potentially diagnose the ejecta composition and reveal the nature of the central GRB engine.
We predict the rate at which Gamma-Ray Burst (GRB) afterglows should be detected in supernova searches as a function of limiting flux. Although GRB afterglows are rarer than supernovae, they are detectable at greater distances because of their higher intrinsic luminosity. Assuming that GRBs trace the cosmic star formation history and that every GRB gives rise to a bright afterglow, we find that the average detection rate of supernovae and afterglows should be comparable at limiting magnitudes brighter than K=18. The actual rate of afterglows is expected to be somewhat lower since only a fracti…
We discuss the current interpretations of the {\it Swift} GRB X-ray afterglows, mainly focusing on the sharp decline at the prompt tail emission, and the shallow decay afterward, which is then followed by the conventional pre-\emph{Swift} decay behavior, and the possible X-ray flares during the latter two stages. We emphasize the role of the central engine in interpreting the GRB afterglows.
We calculate the radial surface brightness profile of the image of a Gamma-Ray-Burst (GRB) afterglow. The afterglow spectrum consists of several power-law segments separated by breaks. The image profile changes considerably across each of the spectral breaks. It also depends on the density profile of the ambient medium into which the GRB fireball propagates. Gravitational microlensing by an intervening star can resolve the afterglow image. We calculate the predicted magnification history of GRB afterglows as a function of observed frequency and ambient medium properties. We find that intensive…
Based on near-infrared polarimetric observations we constrain the degree of linear polarization of the afterglow light of GRB 000301C to less than 30% 1.8 days after the burst.
A possible relationship between the presence of a radio afterglow and gamma-ray burst spectral hardness is discussed. The correlation is marginally significant; the spectral hardness of the bursts with radio afterglows apparently results from a combination of the break energy Ebreak and the high-energy spectral index beta. If valid, this relationship would indicate that the afterglow does carry information pertaining to the GRB central engine.
The most interesting current open question in the theory of GRB afterglow is the propagation of jetted afterglows during the sideway expansion phase. Recent numerical simulations show hydrodynamic behavior that differs from the one suggested by simple analytic models. Still, somewhat surprisingly, the calculated light curves show a `jet break' at about the expected time. These results suggest that the expected rate of orphan optical afterglows should be smaller than previously estimated.
We extend the standard fireball model, widely used to interpret gamma-ray burst (GRB) afterglow light curves, to include energy injections, and apply the model to the afterglow light curves of GRB 990510, GRB 000301C and GRB 010222. We show that discrete energy injections can cause temporal variations in the optical light curves and present fits to the light curves of GRB 000301C as an example. A continuous injection may be required to interpret other bursts such as GRB 010222. The extended model accounts reasonably well for the observations in all bands ranging from X-rays to radio wavelength…
Observations of gamma ray bursts (GRB) afterglows in different spectral bands provide a most valuable information about their nature, as well as about properties of surrounding medium. Powerful infrared afterglow was observed from the strong GRB041219. Here we explain the observed IR afterglow in the model of a dust reradiation of the main GRB signal in the envelope surrounding the GRB source. In this model we do not expect appearance of the prompt optical emission which should be absorbed in the dust envelope. We estimate the collimation angle of the gamma ray emission, and obtain restriction…
In a recent paper, Rol and colleagues present evidence for a variable polarization in the optical afterglow following the gamma-ray burst GRB 990712. The variation is highly significant, but the position angle appears time independent. Contrary to their conclusion, we point out that this can in fact be explained with existing afterglow models, namely that of a laterally expanding jet.
If the efficiency for producing $γ$-rays is the same in short duration ($\siml 2$ s) Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) as in long duration GRBs, then the average kinetic energy of short GRBs must be $\sim 20$ times less than that of long GRBs. Assuming further that the relativistic shocks in short and long duration GRBs have similar parameters, we show that the afterglows of short GRBs will be on average 10--40 times dimmer than those of long GRBs. We find that the afterglow of a typical short GRB will be below the detection limit ($\siml 10 \microJy$) of searches at radio frequencies. The afterglow wou…
The precise localization of short/hard (Type I) gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) in recent years has answered many questions but raised even more. I present some results of a systematic study of the optical afterglows of long/soft (Type II) and short/hard (Type I) GRBs, focusing on the optical luminosity as another puzzle piece in the classification of GRBs.
We report observations of the early light curves of GRB 060418 and GRB 060607A, carried out with the pink robotic telescope REM. A clear peak is detected for both events, which is interpreted as the onset of the afterglow, that is the time at which the fireball starts decelerating. This detection allows to directly measure the initial fireball Lorentz factor, which was found to be Gamma_0 ~ 400 for both events, fully confirming the ultrarelativistic nature of gamma-ray burst fireballs. Sampling the light curve before the peak also allows to compute the bolometric fluence of the afterglow, whic…
The role of Compton cooling in the standard model for the afterglows of gamma-ray bursts is considered. When electrons cool by scattering off their own synchrotron photons, three cooling regimes are identified in which the observed synchrotron radiation exhibits qualitatively different characteristics. Depending on the values of the source parameters, an afterglow may evolve through one, two or all three of these regimes. Since synchrotron radiation can be regarded as Compton scattering of the virtual photons due to the magnetic field, in one of these regimes the instantaneous synchrotron spec…
The rapid follow-up of gamma-ray burst (GRB) afterglows made possible by the multi-wavelength satellite Swift, launched in November 2004, has put under a microscope the GRB early post-burst behavior, This is leading to a significant reappraisal and expansion of the standard view of the GRB early afterglow behavior, and its connection to the prompt gamma-ray emission. In addition to opening up the previously poorly known behavior on minutes to hours timescales, two other new pieces in the GRB puzzle being filled in are the the discovery and follow-up of short GRB afterglows, and the opening up …
We report the detection of a bright, near-infrared flash from the afterglow of GRB 050319, 6.15 hours after the burst. The IR flash faded rapidly from J=13.12 mag. to J > 15.5 mag. in about 4 minutes. There are no reported simultaneous observations at other wavelengths making it an unique event. We study the implications of its late timing in the context of current theoretical models for GRB afterglows.
In this paper we review the general properties of X-ray afterglows. We discuss in particular on the powerful diagnostics provided by X-ray afterglows in constraining the environment and fireball in normal GRB, and the implications on the origin of dark GRB and XRF. We also discuss on the observed properties of the transition from the prompt to the afterglow phase, and present a case study for a late X-ray outburst interpreted as the onset of the afterglow stage.
The discovery of Gamma-Ray Burst (GRB) afterglows revealed a new class of variable sources at optical and radio wavelengths. At present, the environment and precise redshift of the detected afterglows are still unknown. We show that if a GRB source resides in a compact (<100pc) gas-rich environment, the afterglow spectrum will show time-dependent absorption features due to the gradual ionization of the surrounding medium by the afterglow radiation. Detection of this time-dependence can be used to constrain the size and density of the surrounding gaseous system. For example, the MgII absorption…
High energy emission (> tens MeV) of Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) provides an important clue to understand the physical processes involved in GRBs, which may be correlated with the GRB early afterglow. A shallow decline phase has been well detected in about half {\it Swift} Gamma-ray Burst X-ray afterglows. The widely considered interpretation involves a significant energy injection and possibly time-evolving shock parameter(s). This work we calculate the synchrotron-self-Compton (SSC) radiation of such an external forward shock and show that it could explain the well-known long term high energy (i…
(Abridged) The Swift X-Ray Telescope (XRT) reveals some interesting features of early X-ray afterglows, including a distinct rapidly decaying component preceding the conventional afterglow component in many sources, a shallow decay component before the more ``normal'' decay component observed in a good fraction of GRBs (e.g. GRB 050128, GRB 050315, GRB 050319, and GRB 050401), and X-ray flares in nearly half of the afterglows (e.g. GRB 050406, GRB 050502B, GRB 050607, and GRB 050724). In this paper, we systematically analyze the possible physical processes that shape the properties of the earl…
An energy deposition of \sim 10^{50} ergs into the exterior 10^{-3} M_\sun layers of a red giant is calculated to produce an optical phenomenon similar to afterglows of gamma-ray bursts (GRB) recently observed. This model can be realized if a GRB is generated by some mechanism in a close binary system. In contrast to a ``hypernova'' scenario for GRB recently proposed by Paczyński (1997), this model does not require a huge kinetic energy of the expanding shell to explain optical afterglows of GRB.
We present a densely sampled R-band light curve of the optical afterglow of GRB 030329 obtained during the period 15.5-23 hours after the burst. This dataset allows us to search for short time-scale fluctuations that must be present at some level due to inhomogeneities in the circumburst medium and/or if the afterglow is intrinsically variable.
GRB afterglows close to their peak intensity are among the brightest sources in the sky. We discuss how GRB optical-to-X-ray afterglows can be used as probes of the metal enrichment of the interstellar matter in the GRB host galaxies and of the heating history of the intergalactic matter in filaments and outskirts of clusters of galaxies along the line of sight. The key points of the proposed observation strategy are: 1) prompt GRB observations (from minutes to a few hours); 2) coordinated O-UV and X-ray observations; and 3) high resolution (1,500-6,000 in the 0.1-1 keV band and >10,000 in the…
Short-duration Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) (\leq 2{\rm s}) have remained a mystery due to the lack of afterglow detection until recently. The models to interpret short GRBs invoke distinct progenitor scenarios. Here we present a generic analysis of short GRB afterglows, and calculate the optical lightcurves of short GRBs within the framework of different progenitor models. We show that all these optical afterglows are bright enough to be detected by the Ultraviolet and Optical Telescope (UVOT) on board the {\em Swift} observatory, and that different models could be distinguished with a well-monito…
Highly radiative expansion of a relativistic shell is shown to explain all observed features of the afterglows of the two bursts GRB 970228 and GRB 970508. In particular, in the first case the observed time-dependence t^-1.32 of the soft X--ray flux is easily reproduced. The same model, when the surrounding matter density scales as a r^-2, explains the afterglow of GRB 970508}, which may at first sight appear at odds with that of GRB 970228. In particular, it is shown that both the late peak in the optical luminosity and the flat time-dependence of the X--ray luminosity are simultaneously expl…
We show that the X-ray and $γ$-ray spectra of Swift GRBs and their afterglows are consistent with the emission characteristic of an expanding, relativistic fireball. The classical afterglow due to the impact of the fireball on the external medium is often not observed until one to several hours after the GRB. Focusing on GRBs 061121, 060614, and 060124, but generalizing to the full ($>$50 Msec XRT exposure) Swift sample up to and including GRB061210, we show that the early emission in $>$90% of early afterglows has a characteristic $νF_ν$ spectral energy $E_{\rm peak}$ which likely evolves fro…
The Cannonball Model is based on the hypothesis that GRBs and their afterglows are made in supernova explosions by relativistic ejecta similar to the ones observed in quasars and microquasars. Its predictions are simple, and analytical in fair approximations. The model describes well the properties of the $γ$-rays of GRBs. It gives a very simple and extremely successful description of the optical and X-ray afterglows of {\it all} GRBs of known redshift. The only problem the model has, so far, is that it is contrary to staunch orthodox beliefs.
We present the results of observations of the soft gamma-ray early afterglows with the energy above 100keV from two bright Gamma-ray bursts detected by the PHEBUS instrument of the GRANAT orbital observatory. We show that the light curves of GRB910402 and GRB920723 events present the afterglow emission with fading fluxes. During our observations ~700s for these gamma-ray bursts the afterglow emission was fading as the power law of time with indices equal to -0.70+/-0.04 and -0.60+/-0.05 (at 1sigma confidence level). In both cases just after the end of the GRB event we observed the energy spect…
It has long been known that there are two classes of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), mainly distinguished by their durations. The breakthrough in our understanding of long-duration GRBs (those lasting more than ~2 s), which ultimately linked them with energetic Type Ic supernovae, came from the discovery of their long-lived X-ray and optical afterglows, when precise and rapid localizations of the sources could finally be obtained. X-ray localizations have recently become available for short (duration <2 s) GRBs, which have evaded optical detection for more than 30 years. Here we report the first disc…
We present BVRI light curves of the afterglow of GRB000301C, one of the brightest ever detected at a day time scale interval after GRB trigger. The monitoring started 1.5 days after the GRB and ended one month later. Inspection of the extremely well sampled R band light curve and comparison with BVI data has revealed a complex behavior, with a long term flux decrease and various short time scale features superimposed. These are uncommon among other observed afterglows, and might trace either intrinsic variability within the relativistic shock (re-acceleration and re-energization) or inhomogene…
We present optical echelle spectra of four gamma-ray burst (GRB) afterglows (GRB 050730, GRB 050820, GRB 051111, and GRB 060418) discovered during the first 1.5 years of operation of the Swift satellite and localized by either the Swift telescope or follow-up ground-based imaging. We analyze the spectra to derive accurate column density measurements for the transitions arising in the interstellar medium (ISM) of the GRB host galaxies. These measurements can be used to constrain the physical properties of the ISM including the metallicity, dust-to-gas ratio, ionization state, and chemical abund…
The launch of the Beppo-Sax satellite gave a unique opportunity to investigate gamma ray bursts (GRB) in different spectral regions. The large diversity of the afterglow behavior creates additional problems for the cosmological model with a fireball. Formation of the afterglow giving the observed diversity of properties is suggested in the Galactic neutron star model of GRBs. It is based on the transient accretion disc formation around the neutron star with a low-mass brown companion irradiated by the neutron star.
We compiled a large sample of Swift-era photometric data on long (Type II) and short (Type I) GRB afterglows. We compare the luminosity and energetics of the different samples to each other and to the afterglows of the pre-Swift era. Here, we present the first results of these studies.
The CCD magnitudes in Cousins R and I photometric passbands are determined for GRB 991216 and GRB 991208 afterglows respectively about 1 and about 3 day after trigger of the corresponding gamma-ray bursts. Light curves of the afterglow emissions are obtained by combining the published data with the present measurements in R and I passbands for GRB 991208 and in R, Gunn I and J passbands for GRB 991216. They indicate that the flux decay constants of a GRB are almost the same in each passband with values about 2.2 for GRB 991208 and about 1.2 for GRB 991216 indicating very fast optical flux deca…
The flat segment lasting $\sim 10^4$ seconds in the X-ray afterglow of GRB051221A represents the first clear case of strong energy injection in the external shock of a short GRB afterglow. In this work, we show that a millisecond pulsar with dipole magnetic field $\sim 10^{14}$ Gauss could well account for that energy injection. The good quality X-ray flat segment thus suggests that the central engine of this short burst may be a millisecond magnetar.
The BeppoSAX satellite has recently opened a new way towards the solution of the long standing gamma-ray bursts' (GRBs) enigma, providing accurate coordinates few hours after the event thus allowing for multiwavelength follow-up observational campaigns. The BeppoSAX Narrow Field Instruments observed the region of sky containing GRB970111 16 hours after the burst. In contrast to other GRBs observed by BeppoSAX no bright afterglow was unambiguously observed. A faint source (1SAXJ1528.1+1937) is detected in a position consistent with the BeppoSAX Wide Field Camera position, but unconsistent with …
I review the main observational achievements concerning GRB optical afterglows occurred in the past two years. Their emission seems to be well interpreted in terms of the `fireball' model, although a variety of behaviours are observed. Evidence for supernova-like late time `bumps' in the optical light curves is growing; however, other interpretations are possible. Fast follow-up observations allowed the detection of faint optical afterglows, and seem to suggest that a fraction of the so-called `dark' bursts might actually be re-classified as `dim' GRBs. Perspectives for future observations in …
A systematical study on the early X-ray afterglows of both optically bright and dark gamma-ray bursts (B-GRBs and D-GRBs) observed by Swift has been presented. Our sample includes 25 GRBs. Among them 13 are B-GRBs and 12 are D-GRBs. Our results show that the distributions of the X-ray afterglow fluxes ($F_{X}$), the gamma-ray fluxes ($S_γ$), and the ratio ($R_{γ, X}$) for both the D-GRBs and B-GRBs are similar. The differences of these distributions for the two kinds of GRBs should be statistical fluctuation. These results indicate that the progenitors of the two kinds of GRBs are the same pop…
The collapse of a massive star is believed to be the most probable progenitor of a long GRB. Such a star is expected to modify its environment by stellar wind. The effect of such a circum-stellar wind medium is expected to be seen in the evolution of a GRB afterglow, but has so far not been conclusively found. We claim that a signature of wind to constant density medium transition of circum-burst medium is visible in the afterglow of GRB 050319. Along with the optical observations of the afterglow of GRB 050319 we present a model for the multiband afterglow of GRB 050319. We show that the brea…
Despite a rich diversity in observational properties, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) can be divided into two broad categories based on their duration and spectral hardness -- the long-soft and the short-hard GRBs. The discovery of afterglows from long GRBs in 1997, and their localization to arcsecond accuracy, was a watershed event. The ensuing decade of intense study led to the realization that long-soft GRBs are located in star forming galaxies, produce about 10^51 erg in collimated relativistic ejecta, are accompanied by supernovae, and result from the death of massive stars. While theoretical arg…
Time-dependent thermal X-ray spectra are calculated from physically plausible conditions around GRB. It is shown that account for time-dependent ionization processes strongly affects the observed spectra of hot rarefied plasma. These calculations may provide an alternative explanation to the observed X-ray lines of early GRBs afterglows (such as GRB 011211). Our technique will allow one to obtain independent constraints on the GRB collimation angle and on the clumpiness of circumstellar matter.
