Over the last decade, a new idea challenging the classical self-non-self viewpoint has become popular amongst immunologists. It is called the Danger Theory. In this conceptual paper, we look at this theory from the perspective of Artificial Immune System practitioners. An overview of the Danger Theory is presented with particular emphasis on analogies in the Artificial Immune Systems world. A number of potential application areas are then used to provide a framing for a critical assessment of the concept, and its relevance for Artificial Immune Systems.
University College London（伦敦大学学院）；University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学）
The analysis of system calls is one method employed by anomaly detection systems to recognise malicious code execution. Similarities can be drawn between this process and the behaviour of certain cells belonging to the human immune system, and can be applied to construct an artificial immune system. A recently developed hypothesis in immunology, the Danger Theory, states that our immune system responds to the presence of intruders through sensing molecules belonging to those invaders, plus signals generated by the host indicating danger and damage. We propose the incorporation of this concept …
School Of Computer Science, University Of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学计算机科学学院）
In recent years computer systems have become increasingly complex and consequently the challenge of protecting these systems has become increasingly difficult. Various techniques have been implemented to counteract the misuse of computer systems in the form of firewalls, anti-virus software and intrusion detection systems. The complexity of networks and dynamic nature of computer systems leaves current methods with significant room for improvement. Computer scientists have recently drawn inspiration from mechanisms found in biological systems and, in the context of computer security, have focu…
The immune system provides an ideal metaphor for anomaly detection in general and computer security in particular. Based on this idea, artificial immune systems have been used for a number of years for intrusion detection, unfortunately so far with little success. However, these previous systems were largely based on immunological theory from the 1970s and 1980s and over the last decade our understanding of immunological processes has vastly improved. In this paper we present two new immune inspired algorithms based on the latest immunological discoveries, such as the behaviour of Dendritic Ce…
University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学）；University College London（伦敦大学学院）；HP Labs（惠普实验室）；King’s College London（伦敦国王学院）；University of the West of England（西英格兰大学）
We present ideas about creating a next generation Intrusion Detection System based on the latest immunological theories. The central challenge with computer security is determining the difference between normal and potentially harmful activity. For half a century, developers have protected their systems by coding rules that identify and block specific events. However, the nature of current and future threats in conjunction with ever larger IT systems urgently requires the development of automated and adaptive defensive tools. A promising solution is emerging in the form of Artificial Immune Sy…
The immune system provides a rich metaphor for computer security: anomaly detection that works in nature should work for machines. However, early artificial immune system approaches for computer security had only limited success. Arguably, this was due to these artificial systems being based on too simplistic a view of the immune system. We present here a second generation artificial immune system for process anomaly detection. It improves on earlier systems by having different artificial cell types that process information. Following detailed information about how to build such second generat…
Artificial Immune Systems have been successfully applied to a number of problem domains including fault tolerance and data mining, but have been shown to scale poorly when applied to computer intrusion detec- tion despite the fact that the biological immune system is a very effective anomaly detector. This may be because AIS algorithms have previously been based on the adaptive immune system and biologically-naive mod- els. This paper focuses on describing and testing a more complex and biologically-authentic AIS model, inspired by the interactions between the innate and adaptive immune system…
The Human Immune System (HIS) works to protect a body from infection, illness, and disease. This system can inspire cybersecurity professionals to design an Artificial Immune System (AIS) based Intrusion Detection System (IDS). These biologically inspired algorithms using Self/Nonself and Danger Theory can directly augmentIDS designs and implementations. In this paper, we include an examination into the elements of design necessary for building an AIS-IDS framework and present an architecture to create such systems.
University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学）；University of Memphis（孟菲斯大学）
The biological immune system is a robust, complex, adaptive system that defends the body from foreign pathogens. It is able to categorize all cells (or molecules) within the body as self-cells or non-self cells. It does this with the help of a distributed task force that has the intelligence to take action from a local and also a global perspective using its network of chemical messengers for communication. There are two major branches of the immune system. The innate immune system is an unchanging mechanism that detects and destroys certain invading organisms, whilst the adaptive immune syste…
School of Computer Science and IT, University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学计算机科学与信息技术学院）
We apply the Artificial Immune System (AIS) technology to the Collaborative Filtering (CF) technology when we build the movie recommendation system. Two different affinity measure algorithms of AIS, Kendall tau and Weighted Kappa, are used to calculate the correlation coefficients for this movie recommendation system. From the testing we think that Weighted Kappa is more suitable than Kendall tau for movie problems.
School of Computer Science, University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学计算机学院）
Artificial immune systems (AISs) to date have generally been inspired by naive biological metaphors. This has limited the effectiveness of these systems. In this position paper two ways in which AISs could be made more biologically realistic are discussed. We propose that AISs should draw their inspiration from organisms which possess only innate immune systems, and that AISs should employ systemic models of the immune system to structure their overall design. An outline of plant and invertebrate immune systems is presented, and a number of contemporary research that more biologically-realisti…
University of the West of England（西英格兰大学）；University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学）
Artificial Immune Systems have been used successfully to build recommender systems for film databases. In this research, an attempt is made to extend this idea to web site recommendation. A collection of more than 1000 individuals web profiles (alternatively called preferences / favourites / bookmarks file) will be used. URLs will be classified using the DMOZ (Directory Mozilla) database of the Open Directory Project as our ontology. This will then be used as the data for the Artificial Immune Systems rather than the actual addresses. The first attempt will involve using a simple classificatio…
As introduced by Bentley et al. (2005), artificial immune systems (AIS) are lacking tissue, which is present in one form or another in all living multi-cellular organisms. Some have argued that this concept in the context of AIS brings little novelty to the already saturated field of the immune inspired computational research. This article aims to show that such a component of an AIS has the potential to bring an advantage to a data processing algorithm in terms of data pre-processing, clustering and extraction of features desired by the immune inspired system. The proposed tissue algorithm is…
Hewlett-Packard Laboratories（惠普实验室）；School of Computer Science, University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学计算机学院）
The immune system is a complex biological system with a highly distributed, adaptive and self-organising nature. This paper presents an Artificial Immune System (AIS) that exploits some of these characteristics and is applied to the task of film recommendation by Collaborative Filtering (CF). Natural evolution and in particular the immune system have not been designed for classical optimisation. However, for this problem, we are not interested in finding a single optimum. Rather we intend to identify a sub-set of good matches on which recommendations can be based. It is our hypothesis that an …
University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学）；University of Memphis（孟菲斯大学）
The biological immune system is a robust, complex, adaptive system that defends the body from foreign pathogens. It is able to categorize all cells (or molecules) within the body as self-cells or non-self cells. It does this with the help of a distributed task force that has the intelligence to take action from a local and also a global perspective using its network of chemical messengers for communication. There are two major branches of the immune system. The innate immune system is an unchanging mechanism that detects and destroys certain invading organisms, whilst the adaptive immune syste…
It has previously been shown that a recommender based on immune system idiotypic principles can out perform one based on correlation alone. This paper reports the results of work in progress, where we undertake some investigations into the nature of this beneficial effect. The initial findings are that the immune system recommender tends to produce different neighbourhoods, and that the superior performance of this recommender is due partly to the different neighbourhoods, and partly to the way that the idiotypic effect is used to weight each neighbours recommendations.
Over the last few years, more and more heuristic decision making techniques have been inspired by nature, e.g. evolutionary algorithms, ant colony optimisation and simulated annealing. More recently, a novel computational intelligence technique inspired by immunology has emerged, called Artificial Immune Systems (AIS). This immune system inspired technique has already been useful in solving some computational problems. In this keynote, we will very briefly describe the immune system metaphors that are relevant to AIS. We will then give some illustrative real-world problems suitable for AIS use…
School of Computer Science, University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学计算机学院）
The human immune system has numerous properties that make it ripe for exploitation in the computational domain, such as robustness and fault tolerance, and many different algorithms, collectively termed Artificial Immune Systems (AIS), have been inspired by it. Two generations of AIS are currently in use, with the first generation relying on simplified immune models and the second generation utilising interdisciplinary collaboration to develop a deeper understanding of the immune system and hence produce more complex models. Both generations of algorithms have been successfully applied to a va…
School of Computer Science and IT, University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学计算机科学与信息技术学院）
We combine Artificial Immune Systems 'AIS', technology with Collaborative Filtering 'CF' and use it to build a movie recommendation system. We already know that Artificial Immune Systems work well as movie recommenders from previous work by Cayzer and Aickelin 3, 4, 5. Here our aim is to investigate the effect of different affinity measure algorithms for the AIS. Two different affinity measures, Kendalls Tau and Weighted Kappa, are used to calculate the correlation coefficients for the movie recommender. We compare the results with those published previously and show that Weighted Kappa is mor…
In this thesis, the uses of Artificial Immune Systems (AIS) in Machine learning is studded. the thesis focus on some of immune inspired algorithms such as clonal selection algorithm and artificial immune network. The effect of changing the algorithm parameter on its performance is studded. Then a new immune inspired algorithm for unsupervised classification is proposed. The new algorithm is based on clonal selection principle and named Unsupervised Clonal Selection Classification (UCSC). The new proposed algorithm is almost parameter free. The algorithm parameters are data driven and it adjust…
The biological immune system is a robust, complex, adaptive system that defends the body from foreign pathogens. It is able to categorize all cells (or molecules) within the body as self or non-self substances. It does this with the help of a distributed task force that has the intelligence to take action from a local and also a global perspective using its network of chemical messengers for communication. There are two major branches of the immune system. The innate immune system is an unchanging mechanism that detects and destroys certain invading organisms, whilst the adaptive immune system…
Artificial immune system can be used to generate schedules in changing environments and it has been proven to be more robust than schedules developed using a genetic algorithm. Good schedules can be produced especially when the number of the antigens is increased. However, an increase in the range of the antigens had somehow affected the fitness of the immune system. In this research, we are trying to improve the result of the system by rescheduling the same problem using the same method while at the same time maintaining the robustness of the schedules.
Network intrusion detection is the problem of detecting unauthorised use of, or access to, computer systems over a network. Two broad approaches exist to tackle this problem: anomaly detection and misuse detection. An anomaly detection system is trained only on examples of normal connections, and thus has the potential to detect novel attacks. However, many anomaly detection systems simply report the anomalous activity, rather than analysing it further in order to report higher-level information that is of more use to a security officer. On the other hand, misuse detection systems recognise kn…
Task scheduling problem in heterogeneous systems is the process of allocating tasks of an application to heterogeneous processors interconnected by high-speed networks, so that minimizing the finishing time of application as much as possible. Tasks are processing units of application and have precedenceconstrained, communication and also, are presented by Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs). Evolutionary algorithms are well suited for solving task scheduling problem in heterogeneous environment. In this paper, we propose a hybrid heuristic-based Artificial Immune System (AIS) algorithm for solving …
In mobile robotics, a solid test for adaptation is the ability of a control system to function not only in a diverse number of physical environments, but also on a number of different robotic platforms. This paper demonstrates that a set of behaviours evolved in simulation on a miniature robot (epuck) can be transferred to a much larger-scale platform (Pioneer), both in simulation and in the real world. The chosen architecture uses artificial evolution of epuck behaviours to obtain a genetic sequence, which is then employed to seed an idiotypic, artificial immune system (AIS) on the Pioneers. …
Typical artificial immune system (AIS) operators such as hypermutations with mutation potential and ageing allow to efficiently overcome local optima from which evolutionary algorithms (EAs) struggle to escape. Such behaviour has been shown for artificial example functions constructed especially to show difficulties that EAs may encounter during the optimisation process. {\color{black}However, no evidence is available indicating that these two operators have similar behaviour also in more realistic problems.} In this paper we perform an analysis for the standard NP-hard \partition problem from…
School of Computer Science, University of Nottingham（诺丁汉大学计算机学院）
This paper demonstrates that a set of behaviours evolved in simulation on a miniature robot (epuck) can be transferred to a much larger scale platform (a virtual Pioneer P3-DX) that also differs in shape, sensor type, sensor configuration and programming interface. The chosen architecture uses a reinforcement learning-assisted genetic algorithm to evolve the epuck behaviours, which are encoded as a genetic sequence. This sequence is then used by the Pioneers as part of an adaptive, idiotypic artificial immune system (AIS) control architecture. Testing in three different simulated worlds shows …
Heriot-Watt University（赫瑞瓦特大学）；University of Aberdeen（阿伯丁大学）
Current Neural Architecture Search techniques can suffer from a few shortcomings, including high computational cost, excessive bias from the search space, conceptual complexity or uncertain empirical benefits over random search. In this paper, we present ImmuNeCS, an attempt at addressing these issues with a method that offers a simple, flexible, and efficient way of building deep learning models automatically, and we demonstrate its effectiveness in the context of convolutional neural networks. Instead of searching for the 1-best architecture for a given task, we focus on building a populatio…
Various studies have shown that characteristic Artificial Immune System (AIS) operators such as hypermutations and ageing can be very efficient at escaping local optima of multimodal optimisation problems. However, this efficiency comes at the expense of considerably slower runtimes during the exploitation phase compared to standard evolutionary algorithms. We propose modifications to the traditional `hypermutations with mutation potential' (HMP) that allow them to be efficient at exploitation as well as maintaining their effective explorative characteristics. Rather than deterministically eva…
We present a time complexity analysis of the Opt-IA artificial immune system (AIS). We first highlight the power and limitations of its distinguishing operators (i.e., hypermutations with mutation potential and ageing) by analysing them in isolation. Recent work has shown that ageing combined with local mutations can help escape local optima on a dynamic optimisation benchmark function. We generalise this result by rigorously proving that, compared to evolutionary algorithms (EAs), ageing leads to impressive speed-ups on the standard Cliff benchmark function both when using local and global mu…
The use of artificial immune systems in intrusion detection is an appealing concept for two reasons. Firstly, the human immune system provides the human body with a high level of protection from invading pathogens, in a robust, self-organised and distributed manner. Secondly, current techniques used in computer security are not able to cope with the dynamic and increasingly complex nature of computer systems and their security. It is hoped that biologically inspired approaches in this area, including the use of immune-based systems will be able to meet this challenge. Here we collate the algor…
The use of artificial immune systems in intrusion detection is an appealing concept for two reasons. Firstly, the human immune system provides the human body with a high level of protection from invading pathogens, in a robust, self-organised and distributed manner. Secondly, current techniques used in computer security are not able to cope with the dynamic and increasingly complex nature of computer systems and their security. It is hoped that biologically inspired approaches in this area, including the use of immune-based systems will be able to meet this challenge. Here we review the algori…
The detection of anomalies in unknown environments is a problem that has been approached from different perspectives with variable results. Artificial Immune Systems (AIS) present particularly advantageous characteristics for the detection of such anomalies. This research is based on an existing detector model, named Artificial Bioindicators System (ABS) which identifies and solves its main weaknesses. An ABS based anomaly classifier model is presented, incorporating elements of the AIS. In this way, a new model (R-ABS) is developed which includes the advantageous capabilities of an ABS plus t…
In a previous paper the authors argued the case for incorporating ideas from innate immunity into artificial immune systems (AISs) and presented an outline for a conceptual framework for such systems. A number of key general properties observed in the biological innate and adaptive immune systems were highlighted, and how such properties might be instantiated in artificial systems was discussed in detail. The next logical step is to take these ideas and build a software system with which AISs with these properties can be implemented and experimentally evaluated. This paper reports on the resul…
Previous research has shown that artificial immune systems can be used to produce robust schedules in a manufacturing environment. The main goal is to develop building blocks (antibodies) of partial schedules that can be used to construct backup solutions (antigens) when disturbances occur during production. The building blocks are created based upon underpinning ideas from artificial immune systems and evolved using a genetic algorithm (Phase I). Each partial schedule (antibody) is assigned a fitness value and the best partial schedules are selected to be converted into complete schedules (an…
Two metaheuristic algorithms namely Artificial Immune Systems (AIS) and Genetic Algorithms are classified as computational systems inspired by theoretical immunology and genetics mechanisms. In this work we examine the comparative performances of two algorithms. A special selection algorithm, Clonal Selection Algorithm (CLONALG), which is a subset of Artificial Immune Systems, and Genetic Algorithms are tested with certain benchmark functions. It is shown that depending on type of a function Clonal Selection Algorithm and Genetic Algorithm have better performance over each other.
In a previous paper the authors argued the case for incorporating ideas from innate immunity into articficial immune systems (AISs) and presented an outline for a conceptual framework for such systems. A number of key general properties observed in the biological innate and adaptive immune systems were hughlighted, and how such properties might be instantiated in artificial systems was discussed in detail. The next logical step is to take these ideas and build a software system with which AISs with these properties can be implemented and experimentally evaluated. This paper reports on the resu…
